VPH-2 Risk Factor Analysis for the Transmission of Classical Swine Fever in West Timor, Indonesia

Classical Swine Fever (CSF) is a serious and highly infectious viral disease of domestic pigs and wild boar (Paton and Greiser-Wilke 2003). The causative agent, Classical Swine Fever Virus (CSFV) is a small (40±60 nm) enveloped ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus with a single stranded genome with positive polarity (Horzinek et al. 1971; Moennig and Greiser-Wilke 2008). The virus is one of three pestiviruses that forms a group of economically important pathogens (Moennig et al. 1990) belonging to the Flaviviridae family. It has a close antigenic relationship with the other pestiviruses - bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) and border disease virus (BDV), as demonstrated by immunodiffusion and immunofluorescence tests, and their similar morphology and nucleic acid homology (Wengler 1991; Wengler et al. 1995). Indonesia was free from CSF until 1993. Between 1994 and 1996 thousands of pigs were reported to have died from the disease in the Indonesian regions of North Sumatera, Jakarta, Bali, Central Java, and North Sulawesi (Satya and Santhia 2000). An outbreak of CSF was reported in Dili, East Timor in August 1997 and the disease then spread to the Kupang district of West Timor in March 1998 (Satya and Santhia 2009) and subsequently to all districts of Timor (Santhia et al. 1997; Santhia et al. 1998).              The existence of CSF in an area and the potential for introducing the disease into a new area can be associated with the presence of certain risk factors. Identification of these risk factors is important in understanding the transmission of disease and for developing effective prevention, control and eradication programs. Farmers are a valuable source of information about potential risk factors and associated management and husbandry practices linked with disease as they often have many years of experience in raising or trading livestock. This knowledge can be used to identify risk factors for disease.The objective of the study was to identify potential risk factors associated with CSF infection in West Timor. In particular factors involved in the management and husbandry of pigs were investigated

The epidemiology of brucellosis in Timor, Indonesia

Bovine brucellosis is a serious disease of cattle in many countries of the world. The study outlined in this thesis was conducted to investigate the distribution and epidemiology of bovine brucellosis in Timor, Indonesia. The current study found that brucellosis was prevalent in Timor with 19.2% of 3890 cattle tested being seropositive. However the prevalence varied significantly between districts (range 3 to 58.8%) and villages (0 to 76.6%). The practice of moving cattle, without testing, between districts is likely to have allowed the rapid distribution of infection throughout Timor. Furthermore management practices including running animals in large groups and keeping old cows all were shown to significantly increase the risk of infection. The high seroprevalence in some villages was found to be having a significant effect on the productivity of animals from these villages. Seropositive animals were 13.8 times more likely to have an abortion and 9.7 times more likely to have had a stillbirth delivery than seronegative cows. In contrast seronegative animals were 4.2 times more likely to have produced healthy calves than seropositive cows. Only Brucella abortus biotype 1 was cultured from cattle in Timor. The bacterium was cultured more successfully from hygromas (47.9%) than from lymph-nodes (18.5%). Of the lymph nodes B. abortus was cultured more frequently from the supramammary than from any other nodes. Digests of DNA resolved by pulsed field gel electrophoresis found that all isolates (both from Timor, strain 19 and type isolates) had the same pattern. From this result it is likely that B. abortus is clonal however further extracts need digesting with other restriction enzymes to confirm this observation. The results of a 24 month vaccination trial with strain 19 confirmed that this vaccine induces a significant serological response, both in calves and cows, in Bali cattle. In contrast to vaccinated animals more in-contact non-vaccinated control animals developed serological evidence of brucellosis. However some (< 2%) vaccinated animals still were seropositive 24 months after vaccination and care will be required when interpreting the serological response of a small proportion of vaccinated cows. An economic evaluation of the benefit of vaccinating adult cows with low dose strain 19 showed that vaccination was highly profitable with returns of over 2000%. This in part was due to the high prevalence in Timor, the low costs of farming livestock and the significant losses induced by brucellosis. Serological evidence of infection was also found in buffalo (8.3%) and pigs (5.1%). However it is likely that these animals play only a minor role in the spread of bovine brucellosis. Twelve percent of humans tested were seropositive to brucellosis. Occupation was identified as a significant risk factor for infection in humans. It is concluded that vaccination of adult cows with low dose strain 19 will, not only have a significant impact on the losses from brucellosis and hence improve the productivity and profitability of cattle in Timor, but also will reduce the prevalence of disease in humans and other species

Impacts of Pig Management and Husbandry Farmers Towards Classical Swine Fever Transmission in West Timor Indonesia (DAMPAK MANAJEMEN DAN CARA BETERNAK BABI TERHADAP PENULARAN PENYAKIT CHOLERA BABI DI TIMOR BARAT)

Classical swine fever (CSF) is a serious and highly infectious viral disease of domestic pigs and wildboar, which is caused by a single stranded RNA pestivirus. A cross sectional study was carried out onsmall-holder pig farmers in West Timor, in the province of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. The objectiveof this study was to describe the management, husbandry and trading practices adopted by pig farmers inWest Timor. A questionnaire survey was administered to the owners of these pigs (n = 240) to gatherinformation from farmers in order to understand management and husbandry practices in the region. Theresults of the questionnaire highlighted the lack of implementation of biosecurity measures by smallholderfarms in West Timor, which has the potential to increase the risk of their pigs to CSF, as well as toother diseases

Kerugian Ekonomi Akibat Penyakit Rabies di Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur (ECONOMICAL LOSSES OF RABIES DISEASE IN EAST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCE)

The objective of this paper was to analyze economic impact of rabies in East Nusa Tenggara Province.Data from Health Department of East Nusa Tenggara Province (Period 1998-2007) were applied to a setof link the economics model. Analysis presented in this paper only costs related with PET, Vaccination andelimination of dogs. The total societal cost (PET in human) incurred by the disease was about Rp 19.9billion. The cost included transport cost to and from rabies-treatment centers, and loss of income whilereceiving treatment. The cost of vaccination was estimate about Rp 50.000 per dog and about 140.000dogs were vaccinated per year in the area. For this analysis, vaccination costs per dog included relatedcomponents on campaign organization, public awareness efforts, transport and biological and materialcosts. The economic losses due to the culling and vaccination program in dogs wes about Rp 5,3 and Rp 7billion per year, respectively. Total cost for vaccination and elimination of dog from 1998 through 2007 wasabout Rp 122,5 billion or Rp 12,3 billion per year. Total economic lost due to rabies in East Nusa TenggaraProvince during 1998-2007 was approximately 14,2 per year. The economic losses may be reduced byoptimalisation of rabies control in animal reservoir of rabies especially in dogs. The elimination of rabiesin dogs through mass vaccination with minimal coverage 70% of dog population is believed contribute tominimise rabies in human

Total number of registered dogs (<i>n</i>), vaccinated dogs (<i>n_vd</i>), culled dogs (<i>n_cd</i>), samples submitted (<i>n_ss</i>), and tested positive (<i>n_sp</i>) in Flores Island from 2000 to 2011.

<p>Source data: Husbandry Department of East Nusa Tenggara Province. These data were registered by each Regency Husbandry Department in Flores Island as part of vaccination campaign. In case the dog owners and their dogs were not present at time of registration, the dogs were not accounted for. For example in Sikka regency, the dogs of approximately 30% of the dog owners were not registered for this reason in 2012 (Personal communication, Dr. Sikko). As a result the registered number underestimates the actual size of the dog population.</p><p>^a Windiyaningsih et al., <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083654#pone.0083654-Windiyaningsih1" target="_blank">[9]</a>.</p

The number of bitten human by rabies suspected dogs and post exposure treatments (PET) in Flores Island during 2000–2011.

<p>Source data: Human Health Department of East Nusa Tenggara Province.</p><p>^a Windiyaningsih et al., <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083654#pone.0083654-Windiyaningsih1" target="_blank">[9]</a>.</p

Cost of Rabies control measures in humans.

<p>We assumed that the costs of pre-exposure treatment were the same over time.</p><p>This assumption is based on the costs of pre-exposure treatment control measure in 2011.</p

Model inputs for the cost calculations of control measures in dogs (Prices expressed at level of 2011).

<p>^a Indonesian Agriculture Ministry (IAM) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083654#pone.0083654-IAM1" target="_blank">[53]</a>);</p><p>^b Public servants/veterinarians involved in rabies control measures in the past;</p><p>^c Vaccinators involved in the vaccination campaign;</p><p>^d Calculated: Multiplying by the average distance between the vaccination location and the Regency Agricultural Department (in average 100 km, rate of fuel consumption (in average 1litter per 50 km <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083654#pone.0083654-http1" target="_blank">[54]</a>) and market price of fuel per litter (Rp 4,500 per litter).</p><p>^e The real cost paid to a public servant (Rp 100,000 per person per day) minus his/her transportation cost (Rp 9,000 per person per day);</p><p>^f Average number based on data from Husbandry Department of Sikka and Ngada regencies;</p><p>^g http://<a href="http://www.igloo-store.com/detail/IGLDUOSTCOOLG" target="_blank">www.igloo-store.com/detail/IGLDUOSTCOOLG</a> (accessed 24 June 2013);</p><p>^h Market price in Flores by asking the seller in the shopping center;</p><p>ⁱ Assumption based on the author knowledge;</p><p>^j Dog owners participated in the vaccination program;</p><p>^k BPS (Indonesian Statistics) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083654#pone.0083654-BPS2" target="_blank">[55]</a>;</p><p>^l Calculated based on the average value of dogs year 2003, Rp 175,000 per dog (Hutabarat et al., <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083654#pone.0083654-Hutabarat1" target="_blank">[23]</a>);</p><p>^m Calculated based on the daily wage and the number of dog culled per day per person (approximately 16 dogs per day per person);</p><p>ⁿ Michell and Kanowski <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083654#pone.0083654-Mitchell1" target="_blank">[56]</a>;</p><p>^o Husbandry Department of Sikka Regency;</p><p>^p Center of Disease Investigation, Maros;</p><p>^q Ende Regency quarantine;</p><p>^r Indonesian quarantine (IQ) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083654#pone.0083654-IQ1" target="_blank">[57]</a>;</p

The components of public and private costs of rabies control measures for different stakeholders.

<p>The components of public and private costs of rabies control measures for different stakeholders.</p